Fig. 1

Formation and regulatory mechanisms of biomolecular condensates. RNA, transcribed from DNA, transits the nuclear pores to enter the cytoplasm, where it undergoes translation into proteins possessing either IDRs or multiple modular domains with analogous functions within the nucleus. Proteins with IDRs can form condensates with target proteins in the cytoplasm or, upon entering the nucleus through nuclear pores, participate in the formation of condensates with specific DNA and RNA. Conversely, proteins with specific modules assemble condensates in the cytoplasm through interaction forces between these modules. The endoplasmic reticulum and the cell membrane contribute to the creation of surface protein condensates, such as protein granules and clusters, through interaction forces on the membrane surface. The intricacies of aggregation and disaggregation of protein condensates, protein granules, and protein clusters with IDRs in the cytoplasm are finely regulated by PTMs and molecular chaperones