Co-culture engineering: a promising strategy for production of engineered extracellular vesicle for osteoarthritis treatment

Table 2 The advantage of 3D co-culture compared to 2D monoculture in the cartilage field

Challenges of cartilage repair and OA treatment	2D mono-culture systems	3D co-culture systems	Reference(s)
Chondrocyte phenotype	Dedifferentiation	Prevention of dedifferentiation	[23]
GAG production and upregulation of chondrogenic markers	Low	High	[14]
Chondrocyte hypertrophy	High	Low	[16, 39]
Chondrocyte proliferation	Low	High	[19]
Chondrogenic differentiation of MSC	Low	High	[9]
Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effect	Low	High	[37, 40]
EV yield	Low	High	[22, 32]
miRs in EVs	Low	High	[35]
Capacity for engineering and functional outcomes	Low	High	[21, 39]

ISSN: 1478-811X