Table 5 Effects of endothelial progenitor cells and other stem cells-derived exosomes on bone

EPC

miR-126

Downregulate the expression of SPEED1 and activate the Raf/ERK signaling pathway.

Enhances proliferation, migration and angiogenesis of endothelial cells.

[152]

EPC

–

Promote the expression of angiogenesis-related molecules such as VEGF-A and VEGFR-2.

Enhance proliferation, migration and angiogenic potential of endothelial cells.

[153]

EPC

LncRNA-MALAT1

Inhibits the activity of miR-124.

Promote the recruitment and differentiation of osteoclast precursors in the early stage of bone repair and promote bone repair.

[154]

EPC

–

Upregulate GPX4, systemX^c− and cysteine levels while reducing MDA and ROS production

Inhibits programmed osteoblast death.

[155]

EPC

miR-126

Upregulate the expressions of proteins of Erk1/2 and Bcl-2

Enhance proliferation and migration of osteoblasts, reduce apoptosis.

[156]

hiPSC

–

Enhance ALP activity, up-regulate the mRNA and protein expression of osteogenesis-related genes in BMSCs.

Promote the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs, promote angiogenesis.

[157]

hiPSC

–

Activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in endothelial cells.

Promote angiogenesis.

[158]

SMSC

–

–

Enhanced proliferation and anti-apoptotic activity of BMSCs.

[159]

IPFP MSC

–

–

Promote macrophage M2 polarization, accelerate tendon-bone healing and intra-articular graft remodeling after ACLR.

[160]

hDPSC

–

Increased expression of osteogenic genes such as RUNT2, ALP, OCN.

Promotes osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs.

[161]

PSC

surface-associated tetraspanins

–

Induce proliferation, migration and osteogenic differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells

[162]

hESC

miR-302c

Downregulate the expression of NLRP3

Inhibite H₂O₂-mediated pyroptosis of nucleus pulposus cells

[163]