Table 3 Effects of prokaryotic EVs on eukaryotic cells

Acinetobacter baumannii

Human macrophages cells

Virulence factor: Omp33–36 porin

Apoptosis↑, and autophagy modulation

[134]

Clostridioides difficile

Human colorectal epithelial Caco-2 cells

A total of 262 proteins

Pro-inflammatory response↑ and cytotoxicity of colonic epithelial cells↑

[118]

Vibrio cholerae

Human intestinal cell lines

Outer membrane porins, i.e., OmpU and OmpT bioactive cholera toxin

[51]

Helicobacter pylori

Macrophage RAW264.7 cells

Epimerase_2 domain-containing protein (Epi_2D), Probable malate: quinone oxidoreductase (Pro_mqo), and Probable cytosol aminopeptidase (Pro_ca)

Th2 immune response↑

[171]

Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 and Commensal ECOR63

Intestinal Epithelial Cells

The tcpC gene, such as ECOR63.

ZO-1↑ and claudin-14↑, and claudin-2↓, and protects epithelial barrier function

[172]

Salmonella typhimurium

Human colorectal carcinoma (HTC116), breast cancer (MCF-7), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell lines

Anti-neoplastic activity↑, tumor volume↓, tumor growth (Ki-67↓), Caspase-3↑, Bax↑, Beclin-1↑, and CD49b↑, down-regulated the Angiogenesis (VEGF↓)

[140]