Table 2 Iron and copper have separate functions leading to cell death
From: Iron and copper: critical executioners of ferroptosis, cuproptosis and other forms of cell death
| Â | Specific manners | Negative effects | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Â | Fe | Cu | Â |
DNA damage | None reported | Cu complexes bind to DNA and hydrolyze hydrogen bonds [46,47,48,49,50,51] | DNA breaks |
Protein ubiquitination | None reported | Cu+ binding allosterically activates E2D2 [52] | Proteins ubiquitination and degradation |
Protein aggregation | None reported | Cu drives protein lipoylation or –SH groups oxidization induced protein aggregation [5, 53, 54] | Cuproptosis |
Lipid peroxidation | Overloaded iron drives Fenton reaction producing excess PLOOH [6, 55] | None reported | Ferroptosis |