Fig. 3

Modes of Communication between Macrophages and CMs. a Physical interaction. Macrophages interact with neighboring CMs through physical interaction. Macrophages mediate adaptive myocardial remodeling by sensing mechanical stretch of CMs and facilitate CMs electrical conduction by connexin 43. b Paracrine signaling. Macrophages secrete cytokines or other molecules such as IL-1β, OSM, Hepcidin, and Mydgf to regulate CM proliferation, hypertrophy, apoptosis, and electrical conduction. CMs also secrete cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-18, and MCP-1 to recruit macrophages and regulate the phagocytic function of macrophages. c Extracellular vesicles. Macrophages produce vesicles such as miRNA-378a, miRNA-148a, and miRNA-29a to regulate CM death, and CMs also secrete vesicles such as MSC-Exos and CDC-Exos to regulate macrophage polarization and phagocytosis