Table 2 Mechanisms related to Exo-based viral immunity and tolerance
From: Exosomal transmission of viruses, a two-edged biological sword
Virus type | Immunity mechanisms | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
Various viruses | Exosomal miR-146a↑ and miR-148a↑ | Inflammatory response ↑ |
Rabies virus | Exosomal miR-423-5p↑ | IFNβ-related signaling pathway↑, Early-stage viral immunity↑ |
HCV | Exosomal miR-21↑, miR-29a↑, miR-19a↑, and miR-192 | Immune system regulation↑ |
HBV | Exosomal miR-192↑, miR-21↑, miR-215↑, miR-221↑, and miR-222↑, miR-29a↑, HBx↑, HBV pre-genomic RNA↑ | Immune system regulation↑, Il-12↓, Il-6↓, PDL-1↓ |
EBV | Exosomal miR-21↑, miR-29a↑, miR-BART3↑, miR-BHRF1-1↑, LMP1 ↑ | Macrophage IL-12↓, NK cells activity ↓, modulation of the immune response, T cell proliferation↓ |
Dengue virus-2 | Viral NS3 protein↑ and several special miRNAs↑ | Early defense program↑ |
HSV-1 | Exosomal miR-H28↑ and miR-H29↑, glycoprotein B↑ | Regulation of immune function |
Enterovirus 71 | Exosomal miR-146a↑ | IFN-related pathway in immune cells↓ |
Ebola virus | Exosomal VP40 NP↑, Glycoprotein↑ | Apoptosis of T, B cells, and monocytes↑ |
Japanese encephalitis virus | Exosomal miR-let-7a/b↑ | Apoptotic pathways↑ |
HIV | Exosomal miR-16↓, miR-125b↓, miR-146a↑, miR-21↑, Nef↑ | Immune response↑, pro-inflammatory cytokines↑, activation of monocytes and macrophages↑ |
Polyomavirus 2 | Exosomal jcv-miR-J1-5p↑, jcv-miR-J1-3p↑ | large T antigen↓, UL16-binding protein 3↓, NK cell activity↓, viral infection ↑ |
Rhinovirus | Exosomal miR-155↑, Tenascin-c↑ | Pro-inflammatory cytokines↑ |
Influenza A virus | Exosomal miR-17-5p↑, miR-483-3p, 5p↑, mir-374-5p↑, and miR-446i↑, miR-451a↑, miR-5100↑ and miR-7704↑ | miR-17-5p leads to antiviral factor Mx1↓, and viral infection↑ The induction of miR-483-3p, 5p↑, mir-374-5p↑, and miR-446i↑, miR-451a↑, miR-5100↑ and miR-7704↑ can contribute to reduction of viral infection via IFN-β↑, IL-6↑, TNF-α↑, C–C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2)↑, SP100↑ |