Fig. 3

Schematic diagram of the notion that cancer is an ecological disease and that Plasmodium immunotherapy is a systemic ecological counterattack therapy (or ecological therapy) for this ecological disease. Cancer cells secrete a series of immunosuppressive molecules to reprogram immune cells and make a counterespionage to the whole immune system, by recruiting, educating and training the tumor stroma cells to construct an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, which in turn secretes a series of molecules that promote tumor growth and metastasis, and further suppress the immune system. Plasmodium immunotherapy comprehensively activates the immune system that has been inhibited by cancer cells, promotes immune cells to secrete a series of signal molecules (some of these molecules exist within secreted exosomes) that reprogram cancer cells, change their gene expression profiles, inhibit their ability to secrete a series of signal molecules, thereby remodeling the tumor microenvironment by turning the immune-suppressive milieu to immune-supportive milieu